Eurotas River The ancient Greeks used one of three words to refer to the home location of the Spartans. The first refers primarily to the main cluster of settlements in the valley of the: Sparta. The second word was Lacedaemon ( Λακεδαίμων); this was also used sometimes as an adjective and is the name commonly used in the works of and the historians and. Herodotus seems to denote by it the citadel at, in contrast to the lower town of Sparta.

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It could be used synonymously with Sparta, but typically it was not. It denoted the terrain on which Sparta was situated. In Homer it is typically combined with epithets of the countryside: wide, lovely, shining and most often hollow and broken (full of ravines). The hollow suggests the Eurotas Valley. Sparta on the other hand is the country of lovely women, a people epithet.

The name of the population was often used for the state of Lacedaemon: the Lacedaemonians. This epithet utilized the plural of the adjective Lacedaemonius (Greek: Λακεδαιμὀνιοι; Latin: Lacedaemonii, but also Lacedaemones). If the ancients wished to refer to the country more directly, instead of Lacedaemon, they could use a back-formation from the adjective: Lacedaemonian country. As most words for 'country' were feminine, the adjective was in the feminine: Lacedaemonia ( Λακεδαιμονία, Lakedaimonia). Eventually, the adjective came to be used alone. Lacedaemonia was not in general use during the classical period and before. It does occur in Greek as an equivalent of Laconia and Messenia during the Roman and early Byzantine periods, mostly in ethnographers and lexica glossing place names.

For example, 's Lexicon (5th century AD) defines Agiadae as a 'place in Lacedaemonia' named after Agis. The actual transition may be captured by 's Etymologiae (7th century AD), an etymological dictionary. He relied heavily on ' Historiarum Adversum Paganos (5th century AD) and 's (early 5th century AD) as did Orosius. The latter defines Sparta to be Lacedaemonia Civitas but Isidore defines Lacedaemonia as founded by Lacedaemon, son of Semele, relying on Eusebius. There is a rare use, perhaps the earliest of Lacedaemonia, in, but probably with Χὠρα ('country') suppressed.

The immediate area around the town of Sparta, the plateau east of the Taygetos mountains, was generally referred as Laconice ( Λακωνική). This term was sometimes used to refer to all the regions under direct Spartan control, including. Lakedaimona was until 2006 the name of a in the modern Greek of. Geography Sparta is located in the region of Laconia, in the south-eastern Peloponnese. Ancient Sparta was built on the banks of the, the main river of Laconia, which provided it with a source of fresh water. The valley of the Eurotas is a natural fortress, bounded to the west by (2407 m) and to the east by (1935 m). To the north, Laconia is separated from by hilly uplands reaching 1000 m in altitude.

These natural defenses worked to Sparta's advantage and contributed to Sparta never having been sacked. Though landlocked, Sparta had a harbor,, on the Laconian Gulf. Mythology (Greek: Λακεδαίμων) was a king of Laconia. The son of by the nymph, he married, the daughter of, by whom he became the father of,, and Asine. He named the country after himself and the city after his wife. He was believed to have built the sanctuary of the, which stood between Sparta and, and to have given to those divinities the names of and Phaenna. A was erected to him in the neighborhood of Therapne.

Archaeology of the classical period. The theater of ancient Sparta with in the background.

Wrote: Suppose the city of Sparta to be deserted, and nothing left but the temples and the ground-plan, distant ages would be very unwilling to believe that the power of the Lacedaemonians was at all equal to their fame. Their city is not built continuously, and has no splendid temples or other edifices; it rather resembles a group of villages, like the ancient towns of Hellas, and would therefore make a poor show. Until the early 20th century, the chief ancient buildings at Sparta were the theatre, of which, however, little showed above ground except portions of the; the so-called Tomb of, a quadrangular building, perhaps a temple, constructed of immense blocks of stone and containing two chambers; the foundation of an ancient bridge over the; the ruins of a circular structure; some remains of late Roman fortifications; several brick buildings and mosaic pavements.

The remaining archaeological wealth consisted of inscriptions, sculptures, and other objects collected in the local museum, founded by Stamatakis in 1872 and enlarged in 1907. Partial excavation of the round building was undertaken in 1892 and 1893 by the. The structure has been since found to be a semicircular retaining wall of Hellenic origin that was partly restored during the Roman period. From the ancient site In 1904, the began a thorough exploration of, and in the following year excavations were made at Thalamae, Geronthrae, and Angelona near. In 1906, excavations began in Sparta.

A small circus described by proved to be a theatre-like building constructed soon after AD 200 around the altar and in front of the temple of. Here musical and gymnastic contests took place as well as the famous flogging ordeal ( ). The temple, which can be dated to the 2nd century BC, rests on the foundation of an older temple of the 6th century, and close beside it were found the remains of a yet earlier temple, dating from the 9th or even the 10th century. The in clay, amber, bronze, ivory and lead found in great profusion within the precinct range, dating from the 9th to the 4th centuries BC, supply invaluable evidence for early Spartan art. In 1907, the sanctuary of Athena 'of the Brazen House' ( Chalkioikos) was located on the acropolis immediately above the theatre, and though the actual temple is almost completely destroyed, the site has produced the longest extant archaic inscription of Laconia, numerous bronze nails and plates, and a considerable number of votive offerings.

The Greek, built in successive stages from the 4th to the 2nd century, was traced for a great part of its circuit, which measured 48 stades or nearly 10 km (6 miles) (Polyb. The late Roman wall enclosing the acropolis, part of which probably dates from the years following the Gothic raid of AD 262, was also investigated. Besides the actual buildings discovered, a number of points were situated and mapped in a general study of Spartan topography, based upon the description of. Main article: The Menelaion is a shrine associated with Menelaus, located east of Sparta, by the river Eurotas, on the hill Profitis Ilias (: ). Built early 8th century BC it was believed by Spartans to be the home of Menelaus. In 1970 the British School in Athens started excavations in an attempt to locate Mycenaean remains in the area around Menelaion. Among other findings, they uncovered the remains of two Mycenaean mansions and found the first offerings dedicated to Helen and Menelaus.

These mansions were destroyed by earthquake and fire, and archaeologists consider them the possible palace of Menelaus himself. [ ] Excavations made from the early 1990s to the present suggest that the area around Menelaion in the southern part of the Eurotas valley seems to have been the center of Mycenaean Laconia. The Mycenaean settlement was roughly triangular in shape, with its apex pointed towards the north. Its area was approximately equal to that of the 'newer' Sparta, but denudation has wreaked havoc with its buildings and nothing is left save ruined foundations and broken potsherds.

Main article: Prehistory, 'dark age' and archaic period The prehistory of Sparta is difficult to reconstruct because the literary evidence is far removed in time from the events it describes and is also distorted by oral tradition. However, the earliest certain evidence of human settlement in the region of Sparta consists of dating from the Middle period, found in the vicinity of Kouphovouno some two kilometres (1.2 miles) south-southwest of Sparta.

These are the earliest traces of the original Spartan civilisation, as represented in Homer's. [ ] This civilization seems to have fallen into decline by the late, when, according to Herodotus, Macedonian tribes from the north (called by those they conquered) marched into Peloponnese and, subjugating the local tribes, settled there.

The Dorians seem to have set about expanding the frontiers of Spartan territory almost before they had established their own state. They fought against the Dorians to the east and southeast, and also the Achaeans to the northwest. The evidence suggests that Sparta, relatively inaccessible because of the topography of the Taygetan plain, was secure from early on: it was never fortified. Nothing distinctive in the archaeology of the Eurotas River Valley identifies the Dorians or the Dorian Spartan state. The prehistory of the Neolithic, the Bronze Age and the Dark Age (the Early Iron Age) at this moment must be treated apart from the stream of Dorian Spartan history. The legendary period of Spartan history is believed to fall into the Dark Age. It treats the mythic heroes such as the and the, offering a view of the occupation of the Peloponnesus that contains both fantastic and possibly historical elements.

The subsequent proto-historic period, combining both legend and historical fragments, offers the first credible history. Between the 8th and 7th centuries BC the Spartans experienced a period of lawlessness and civil strife, later attested by both Herodotus and Thucydides. As a result, they carried out a series of political and social reforms of their own society which they later attributed to a semi-mythical lawgiver,. Introduction To Nanotechnology Poole Pdf Free. These reforms mark the beginning of the history of Classical Sparta.

Classical Sparta In the, Sparta established itself as a local power in Peloponnesus and the rest of Greece. During the following centuries, Sparta's reputation as a land-fighting force was unequalled. In 480 BC a small force of Spartans, Thespians, and Thebans led by King (approximately 300 were full Spartiates, 700 were Thespians, and 400 were Thebans although these numbers do not reflect casualties incurred prior to the final battle), made a legendary at the against the massive Persian army, inflicting very high casualties on the Persian forces before finally being encircled. The superior weaponry, strategy, and armour of the Greek and their again proved their worth one year later when Sparta assembled at full strength and led a Greek alliance against the Persians at the.

The decisive Greek victory at Plataea put an end to the along with Persian ambition of expanding into Europe. Even though this war was won by a pan-Greek army, credit was given to Sparta, who besides being the protagonist at Thermopylae and Plataea, had been the de facto leader of the entire Greek expedition.

In later Classical times, Sparta along with,, and had been the main powers fighting for supremacy against each other. As a result of the, Sparta, a traditionally continental culture, became a naval power. At the peak of its power Sparta subdued many of the key Greek states and even managed to overpower the elite Athenian navy.

By the end of the 5th century BC it stood out as a state which had defeated the and had invaded the Persian provinces in Anatolia, a period which marks the. During the Sparta faced a coalition of the leading Greek states:,,, and. The alliance was initially backed by Persia, whose lands in had been invaded by Sparta and which feared further Spartan expansion into Asia. Sparta achieved a series of land victories, but many of her ships were destroyed at the by a Greek-Phoenician mercenary fleet that Persia had provided to Athens.

The event severely damaged Sparta's naval power but did not end its aspirations of invading further into Persia, until the Athenian ravaged the Spartan coastline and provoked the old Spartan fear of a revolt. After a few more years of fighting, in 387 BC the was established, according to which all Greek cities of would return to Persian control, and Persia's Asian border would be free of the Spartan threat. The effects of the war were to reaffirm Persia's ability to interfere successfully in Greek politics and to affirm Sparta's weakened hegemonic position in the Greek political system. Sparta entered its long-term decline after a severe military defeat to of Thebes at the.

This was the first time that a lost a land battle at full strength. As Spartan citizenship was inherited by blood, Sparta now increasingly faced a helot population that vastly outnumbered its citizens. The alarming decline of Spartan citizens was commented on. Hellenistic and Roman Sparta Sparta never fully recovered from the losses that the Spartans suffered at Leuctra in 371 BC and the subsequent.

Nonetheless, it was able to continue as a regional power for over two centuries. Neither nor his son attempted to conquer Sparta itself. Even during its decline, Sparta never forgot its claim to be the 'defender of Hellenism' and its. An anecdote has it that when Philip II sent a message to Sparta saying 'If I enter Laconia, I will raze Sparta', the Spartans responded with the single, terse reply: αἴκα, 'if'. When Philip created the on the pretext of unifying Greece against Persia, the Spartans chose not to join, since they had no interest in joining a pan-Greek expedition unless it were under Spartan leadership. Thus, upon the conquest of Persia, Alexander the Great sent to Athens 300 suits of Persian armour with the following inscription: Alexander, son of Philip, and all the Greeks except the Spartans, give these offerings taken from the foreigners who live in Asia [emphasis added].

During Alexander's campaigns in the east, the Spartan king, sent a force to Crete in 333 BC with the aim of securing the island for Sparta. Agis next took command of allied Greek forces against Macedon, gaining early successes, before laying siege to in 331 BC.

A large Macedonian army under general marched to its relief and defeated the Spartan-led force in a pitched battle. More than 5,300 of the Spartans and their allies were killed in battle, and 3,500 of Antipater's troops. Agis, now wounded and unable to stand, ordered his men to leave him behind to face the advancing Macedonian army so that he could buy them time to retreat. On his knees, the Spartan king slew several enemy soldiers before being finally killed by a javelin. Alexander was merciful, and he only forced the Spartans to join the League of Corinth, which they had previously refused to join. During the Sparta was an ally of the.

Spartan political independence was put to an end when it was eventually forced into the after its defeat in the decisive by a coalition of other Greek city-states and Rome and the resultant overthrow of its final king. Sparta played no active part in the in 146 BC when the was defeated by the Roman general. Subsequently Sparta become a in the Roman sense, some of the institutions of were restored and the city became a tourist attraction for the Roman elite who came to observe exotic Spartan customs.

Postclassical and modern Sparta According to Byzantine sources, of the Laconian region remained until well into the 10th century AD. -speaking populations survive today in. In the Middle Ages, the political and cultural center of Laconia shifted to the nearby settlement of, and Sparta fell further in even local importance. Modern was re-founded in 1834, by a decree of King. Structure of Classical Spartan society Constitution. Structure of the Spartan Constitution Sparta was an.

The state was ruled by two of the, both supposedly descendants of and equal in authority, so that one could not act against the power and political enactments of his colleague. The duties of the kings were primarily religious, judicial, and military. They were the chief priests of the state and also maintained communication with the Delphian sanctuary, which always exercised great authority in Spartan politics.

In the time of Herodotus, about 450 BC, their judicial functions had been restricted to cases dealing with heiresses, adoptions and the public roads. Describes the kingship at Sparta as 'a kind of unlimited and perpetual generalship' (Pol. I285a), while refers to the Spartans as 'subject to an at home, to a kingship on campaign' (iii. Civil and criminal cases were decided by a group of officials known as the, as well as a council of known as the. The gerousia consisted of 28 elders over the age of 60, elected for life and usually part of the royal households, and the two kings. High state policy decisions were discussed by this council who could then propose action alternatives to the damos, the collective body of Spartan citizenry, who would. The royal prerogatives were curtailed over time.

Dating from the period of the Persian wars, the king lost the right to and was accompanied in the field by two ephors. He was supplanted also by the ephors in the control of foreign policy. Over time, the kings became mere figureheads except in their capacity as generals. Real power was transferred to the ephors and to the gerousia. The origins of the powers exercised by the assembly of the citizens called the are virtually unknown because of the lack of historical documentation and Spartan state secrecy. Citizenship Not all inhabitants of the Spartan state were considered to be citizens.

Only those who had undertaken the Spartan education process known as the were eligible. However, usually the only people eligible to receive the agoge were, or people who could trace their ancestry to the original inhabitants of the city. There were two exceptions. Or 'foster sons' were foreign students invited to study. The Athenian general, for example, sent his two sons to Sparta as trophimoi. The other exception was that the son of a helot could be enrolled as a syntrophos if a Spartiate formally adopted him and paid his way. If a syntrophos did exceptionally well in training, he might be sponsored to become a Spartiate.

Spartans who could not afford to pay the expenses of the agoge could lose their citizenship. These laws meant that Sparta could not readily replace citizens lost in battle or otherwise and eventually proved near fatal to the continuance of the state as the number of citizens became greatly outnumbered by the non-citizens and, even more dangerously, the helots. Non citizens Others in the state were the, who were free inhabitants of Spartan territory but were non-citizens, and the, the state-owned. Descendants of non-Spartan citizens were not able to follow the agoge. Main article: The Perioikoi came from similar origins as the helots but occupied a significantly different position in Spartan society. Although they did not enjoy full citizen-rights, they were free and not subjected to the same restrictions as the helots. The exact nature of their subjection to the Spartans is not clear, but they seem to have served partly as a kind of military reserve, partly as skilled craftsmen and partly as agents of foreign trade.

Perioikoic hoplites served increasingly with the Spartan army, explicitly at the, and although they may also have fulfilled functions such as the manufacture and repair of armour and weapons, they were increasingly integrated into the combat units of the Spartan army as the Spartiate population declined. Of the Spartan artist known as the (, ca. 550–530 BC) Spartan citizens were debarred by law from trade or manufacture, which consequently rested in the hands of the Perioikoi.

The Periokoi monopoly on trade and manufacturing in one of the richest territories of Greece explains in large part the loyalty of the perioikoi to the Spartan state. Lacedaemon was rich in natural resources, fertile and blessed with a number of good natural harbors. The periokoi could exploit these resources for their own enrichment, and did.

Spartiates, on the other hand, were forbidden (in theory) from engaging in menial labor or trade, although there is evidence of Spartan sculptors, and Spartans were certainly poets, magistrates, ambassadors, and governors as well as soldiers. Allegedly, Spartans were prohibited from possessing gold and silver coins, and according to legend Spartan currency consisted of iron bars to discourage hoarding. It was not until the 260s or 250s BC that Sparta began to mint its own coins. The conspicuous display of wealth appears to have been discouraged, although this did not preclude the production of very fine, highly decorated bronze, ivory and wooden works of art and the production of jewellery. Archeology has produced many examples of all these objects, some of which are exquisite. Allegedly in connection with the Lycurgan Reforms (e.g.

In the mid-8th Century BC), property had been divided into 9,000 equal portions as part of a massive land reform. Each citizen received one estate, a kleros, and thereafter was expected to derive his wealth from it. The land itself was worked by helots, who retained half the yield. From the other half, the Spartiate was expected to pay his mess (syssitia) fees, and the agoge fees for his children.

However, we know nothing about whether land could be bought and sold, whether it could be inherited, if so by what system (primogeniture or equally divided among heirs), whether daughters received dowries and much more. What is clear is that from early on there were marked differences of wealth within the state, and these became even more serious after the law of, passed at some time after the, removed the legal prohibition of the gift or bequest of land. By the mid-5th century, land had become concentrated in the hands of a tiny elite, and the notion of all Spartan citizens being 'equals' had become a farce. By Aristotle's day (384–322 BC) citizenship had been reduced from 9,000 to less than 1,000, and then further decreased to 700 at the accession of in 244 BC. Attempts were made to remedy this situation by creating new laws. Certain penalties were imposed upon those who remained unmarried or who married too late in life.

These laws, however, came too late and were ineffective in reversing the trend. Life in Classical Sparta Birth and death Sparta was above all a militarist state, and emphasis on military fitness began virtually at birth.

Shortly after birth, a mother would bathe her child in wine to see whether the child was strong. If the child survived it was brought before the Gerousia by the child's father. The Gerousia then decided whether it was to be reared or not. It is commonly stated that if they considered it 'puny and deformed', the baby was thrown into a chasm on known euphemistically as the Apothetae (Gr., ἀποθέται, 'Deposits'). This was, in effect, a primitive form of.

Sparta is often portrayed as being unique in this matter; however, there is considerable evidence that the was practiced in other Greek regions, including Athens. There is controversy about the matter in Sparta, since excavations in the chasm only uncovered adult remains, likely belonging to criminals. When Spartans died, marked headstones would only be granted to soldiers who died in combat during a victorious campaign or women who died either in service of a divine office or in childbirth. Main article: Political, social, and economic equality Spartan women, of the citizenry class, enjoyed a status, power, and respect that was unknown in the rest of the classical world. The higher status of females in Spartan society started at birth; unlike Athens, Spartan girls were fed the same food as their brothers. Nor were they confined to their father's house and prevented from exercising or getting fresh air as in Athens, but exercised and even competed in sports.

Most important, rather than being married off at the age of 12 or 13, Spartan law forbade the marriage of a girl until she was in her late teens or early 20s. The reasons for delaying marriage were to ensure the birth of healthy children, but the effect was to spare Spartan women the hazards and lasting health damage associated with pregnancy among adolescents. Spartan women, better fed from childhood and fit from exercise, stood a far better chance of reaching old age than their sisters in other Greek cities, where the median age for death was 34.6 years or roughly 10 years below that of men.

Unlike Athenian women who wore heavy, concealing clothes and were rarely seen outside the house, Spartan women wore dresses (peplos) slit up the side to allow freer movement and moved freely about the city, either walking or driving chariots. Girls as well as boys exercised, possibly in the nude, and young women as well as young men may have participated in the ('Festival of Nude Youths'). Another practice that was mentioned by many visitors to Sparta was the practice of “wife-sharing”. In accordance with the Spartan belief that breeding should be between the most physically fit parents, many older men allowed younger, more fit men, to impregnate their wives.

Other unmarried or childless men might even request another man’s wife to bear his children if she had previously been a strong child bearer. For this reason many considered Spartan women. This practice was encouraged in order that women bear as many strong-bodied children as they could. The Spartan population was hard to maintain due to the constant absence and loss of the men in battle and the intense physical inspection of newborns. Spartan women were also literate and numerate, a rarity in the ancient world. Furthermore, as a result of their education and the fact that they moved freely in society engaging with their fellow (male) citizens, they were notorious for speaking their minds even in public.

Plato, in the middle of the fourth century, described women's curriculum in Sparta as consisting of gymnastics and mousike (music and arts). Plato goes on to praise Spartan women's ability when it came to philosophical discussion. Most importantly, Spartan women had economic power because they controlled their own properties, and those of their husbands. It is estimated that in later Classical Sparta, when the male population was in serious decline, women were the sole owners of at least 35% of all land and property in Sparta. The laws regarding a divorce were the same for both men and women. Unlike women in Athens, if a Spartan woman became the heiress of her father because she had no living brothers to inherit (an ), the woman was not required to divorce her current spouse in order to marry her nearest paternal relative. Spartan women acquired so much wealth that in ’s analysis of the laws and history of Sparta he attributed its precipitous fall (which happened during his lifetime) from being the master of Greece to a second rate power in less than 50 years to the fact that Sparta had become a whose intemperate women loved luxury.

These tendencies became worse after the huge influx of wealth following the Spartan victory of the Peloponnesian War, leading to the eventual downfall of Sparta. Historic women Many women played a significant role in the., heiress to the throne and the wife of, was an influential and well-documented figure. Herodotus records that as a small girl she advised her father to resist a bribe. She was later said to be responsible for decoding a warning that the Persian forces were about to invade Greece; after Spartan generals could not decode a wooden tablet covered in wax, she ordered them to clear the wax, revealing the warning. Plutarch's contains a collection of 'Sayings of Spartan Women', including a laconic quip attributed to Gorgo: when asked by a woman from why Spartan women were the only women in the world who could rule men, she replied 'Because we are the only women who are mothers of men'. By (1834–1917) With the revival of classical learning in, Laconophilia re-appears, for examples in the writings of. The Elizabethan English constitutionalist compared the mixed government of Tudor England to the Spartan republic, stating that 'Lacedemonia [meaning Sparta], [was] the noblest and best city governed that ever was'.

He commended it as a model for England. The Swiss-French philosopher contrasted Sparta favourably with Athens in his, arguing that its austere constitution was preferable to the more cultured nature of Athenian life. Sparta was also used as a model of social purity by Revolutionary and Napoleonic France.

Certain early Zionists, and particularly the founders of movement in Israel, had been influenced by Spartan ideals, particularly as a model for education. Tabenkin, for example, a founding father of the Kibbutz and the, was influenced by Spartan education. He prescribed that education for warfare 'should begin from the nursery', that children should from kindergarten age be taken to 'spend nights in the mountains and valleys'. A new element of Laconophilia by, who linked Spartan ideals to the supposed racial superiority of the Dorians, the ethnic sub-group of the Greeks to which the Spartans belonged. Praised the Spartans, recommending in 1928 that Germany should imitate them by limiting 'the number allowed to live'. He added that 'The Spartans were once capable of such a wise measure. The subjugation of 350,000 Helots by 6,000 Spartans was only possible because of the racial superiority of the Spartans.'

The Spartans had created 'the first racialist state'. In the modern times, the adjective 'spartan' is used to imply simplicity, frugality, or avoidance of luxury and comfort. The term describes a very terse and concise way of speaking that was characteristic of the Spartans. Sparta also features prominently in modern (see ), particularly the (see ). Notable ancient Spartans • – king • – king • – king • – king • (c. 520–480 BC) – king, famous for his actions at the • – king and reformer • (5th–4th century BC) – general • (10th century BC) – lawgiver • (7th century BC) – athlete • (4th century BC) – princess and athlete • – philosopher • – queen and politician • – of the Trojan War, Queen of Sparta • – King of Sparta during the Trojan War • – Spartan mercenary, of the first Punic war.

• – Spartan mercenary in the army of the. • – King See also • Notes and references Notes. • For the nature of this development, see the article on Laconophilia. • According to Thucydides, the Athenian citizens at the beginning of the Peloponnesian War (5th century BC) numbered 40,000, making with their families a total of 140,000 people in all.

The metics, i.e. Those who did not have citizen rights and paid for the right to reside in Athens, numbered a further 70,000, whilst slaves were estimated at between 150,000 to 400,000. • Found on the following tablets: Fq 229, TH Fq 258, TH Fq 275, TH Fq 253, TH Fq 284, TH Fq 325, TH Fq 339, TH Fq 382. There are also words like 𐀨𐀐𐀅𐀖𐀛𐀍𐀄𐀍, ra-ke-da-mo-ni-jo-u-jo – found on the TH Gp 227 tablet - that could perhaps mean 'son of the Spartan'.

Moreover, the attested words 𐀨𐀐𐀅𐀜, ra-ke-da-no and 𐀨𐀐𐀅𐀜𐀩, ra-ke-da-no-re could possibly be Linear B forms of Lacedaemon itself; the latter, found on the Ge 604 tablet, is considered to be the form of the former which is found on the MY Ge 603 tablet. It is considered much more probable though that ra-ke-da-no and ra-ke-da-no-re correspond to the Λακεδάνωρ, Lakedanor, though the latter is thought to be related etymologically to Lacedaemon. • Especially the Diamastigosis at the Sanctuary of Artemis Orthia, Limnai outside Sparta.

There an amphitheatre was built in the 3rd century CE to observe the ritual whipping of Spartan youths. • Davies, Norman (1997) [1996]. Europe: a History. Random House.. • Adcock, F.E.

(1957), The Greek and Macedonian Art of War, Berkeley: University of California Press, • Autenrieth, Georg (1891). A Homeric Dictionary for Schools and Colleges. New York: Harper and Brothers. • (2004), Thermopylae: The Battle for the West, New York: Da Capo Press, • Buxton, Richard (1999), From Myth to Reason?: Studies in the Development of Greek Thought, Oxford: Clarendon Press, • (2002), Sparta and Lakonia: A Regional History 1300 to 362 BC (2 ed.), Oxford: Routledge, • (2001), Spartan Reflections, London: Duckworth, • Cartledge, Paul. 'What have the Spartans Done for us?: Sparta's Contribution to Western Civilization', Greece & Rome, Vol. 51, Issue 2 (2004), pp. 164–179. •; Spawforth, Antony (2001), Hellenistic and Roman Sparta (2 ed.), Oxford: Routledge, • (1973), From Solon to Socrates: Greek History and Civilisation between the 6th and 5th centuries BC (2 ed.), London: Routledge, • Forrest, W.G. (1968), A History of Sparta, 950–192 B.C., New York: W.

• (1998), The Greco-Persian Wars (2 ed.), Berkeley: University of California Press, • Liddell, Henry George; Scott, Robert (1940). Jones, Henry Stuart, ed. A Greek-English Lexicon. Oxford: Clarendon Press..

• Morris, Ian (1992), Death-Ritual and Social Structure in Classical Antiquity, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, • Pomeroy, Sarah B. (2002), Spartan Women, Oxford: Oxford University Press, • Powell, Anton (2001), Athens and Sparta: Constructing Greek Political and Social History from 478 BC (2 ed.), London: Routledge, • (1918). Description of Greece.

With an English Translation by W.H.S. Jones, Litt.D., and H.A.

Ormerod, M.A., in 4 Volumes. Cambridge, MA; London. • (1874), Plutarch's Morals, Plutarch, Translated from the Greek by several hands. Corrected and revised. D., Boston, Cambridge • Plutarch (1891), Bernardakis, Gregorius N., ed., Moralia, Plutarch (in Greek), Leipzig: Teubner • Plutarch (2005), Richard J.A. Talbert, ed., On Sparta (2 ed.), London: Penguin Books, • Plutarch (2004), Frank Cole Babbitt, ed., Moralia Vol. III, Loeb Classical Library, Cambridge: Harvard University Press, • Thompson, F.

Hugh (2002), The Archaeology of Greek and Roman Slavery, London: Duckworth, • (1974), M.I. Finley, Rex Warner, ed., History of the Peloponnesian War, London: Penguin Books, • (1999), Greek Lyric Poetry, Oxford: Oxford University Press, This article incorporates text from a publication now in the: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. Cambridge University Press. External links Wikimedia Commons has media related to. Has the text of the article. • • on at the.

• • • Schrader, Helena P. The Spartans: Warrior Philosophers of the Ancient World. Elysium Gates. • Papakyriakou-Anagnostou, Ellen (2000–2011).. Ancient Greek Cities.

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