The diegetic music of Lulu therefore exposes an artistic conflict between BergLs compositional autonomy and his dramaturgi- cal commitment to the realistic musical representation of a non-serialist world. When Alban Berg began work on his second opera in 1928, he chose as the inspiration for his libretto a sequence of.

Methods We studied members of four U.S. Combat infantry units (three Army units and one Marine Corps unit) using an anonymous survey that was administered to the subjects either before their deployment to Iraq (n=2530) or three to four months after their return from combat duty in Iraq or Afghanistan (n=3671). The outcomes included major depression, generalized anxiety, and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), which were evaluated on the basis of standardized, self-administered screening instruments. Results Exposure to combat was significantly greater among those who were deployed to Iraq than among those deployed to Afghanistan. The percentage of study subjects whose responses met the screening criteria for major depression, generalized anxiety, or PTSD was significantly higher after duty in Iraq (15.6 to 17.1 percent) than after duty in Afghanistan (11.2 percent) or before deployment to Iraq (9.3 percent); the largest difference was in the rate of PTSD. Of those whose responses were positive for a mental disorder, only 23 to 40 percent sought mental health care. Those whose responses were positive for a mental disorder were twice as likely as those whose responses were negative to report concern about possible stigmatization and other barriers to seeking mental health care.

The recent military operations in Iraq and Afghanistan, which have involved the first sustained ground combat undertaken by the United States since the war in Vietnam, raise important questions about the effect of the experience on the mental health of members of the military services who have been deployed there. Research conducted after other military conflicts has shown that deployment stressors and exposure to combat result in considerable risks of mental health problems, including post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), major depression, substance abuse, impairment in social functioning and in the ability to work, and the increased use of health care services. One study that was conducted just before the military operations in Iraq and Afghanistan began found that at least 6 percent of all U.S. Military service members on active duty receive treatment for a mental disorder each year. Given the ongoing military operations in Iraq and Afghanistan, mental disorders are likely to remain an important health care concern among those serving there. Many gaps exist in the understanding of the full psychosocial effect of combat. The all-volunteer force deployed to Iraq and Afghanistan and the type of warfare conducted in these regions are very different from those involved in past wars, differences that highlight the need for studies of members of the armed services who are involved in the current operations.

Most studies that have examined the effects of combat on mental health were conducted among veterans years after their military service had ended. A problem in the methods of such studies is the long recall period after exposure to combat. Very few studies have examined a broad range of mental health outcomes near to the time of subjects' deployment. Little of the existing research is useful in guiding policy with regard to how best to promote access to and the delivery of mental health care to members of the armed services. Although screening for mental health problems is now routine both before and after deployment and is encouraged in primary care settings, we are not aware of any studies that have assessed the use of mental health care, the perceived need for such care, and the perceived barriers to treatment among members of the military services before or after combat deployment. We studied the prevalence of mental health problems among members of the U.S. Armed services who were recruited from comparable combat units before or after their deployment to Iraq or Afghanistan.

We identified the proportion of service members with mental health concerns who were not receiving care and the barriers they perceived to accessing and receiving such care. Study Groups We summarized data from the first, cross-sectional phase of a longitudinal study of the effect of combat on the mental health of the soldiers and Marines deployed in Operation Iraqi Freedom and in Operation Enduring Freedom in Afghanistan. Three comparable U.S. Army units were studied with the use of an anonymous survey administered either before deployment to Iraq or after their return from Iraq or Afghanistan. Although no data from before deployment were available for the Marines in the study, data were collected from a Marine Corps unit after its return from Iraq that provided a basis for comparison with data obtained from Army soldiers after their return from Iraq. Recruitment and Representativeness of the Sample Unit leaders assembled the soldiers and Marines near their workplaces at convenient times, and the study investigators then gave a short recruitment briefing and obtained written informed consent on forms that included statements about the purpose of the survey, the voluntary nature of participation, and the methods used to ensure participants' anonymity.

Overall, 58 percent of the soldiers and Marines from the selected units were available to attend the recruitment briefings (79 percent of the soldiers before deployment, 58 percent of the soldiers after deployment in Operation Enduring Freedom in Afghanistan, 34 percent of the soldiers after deployment in Operation Iraqi Freedom, and 65 percent of the Marines after deployment in Operation Iraqi Freedom). Most of those who did not attend the briefings were not available because of their rigorous work and training schedules (e.g., night training and post security). A response was defined as completion of any part of the survey. The response rate among the soldiers and Marines who were briefed was 98 percent for the four samples combined. The rates of missing values for individual items in the survey were generally less than 15 percent; 2 percent of participants did not complete the PTSD measures, 5 percent did not complete the depression and anxiety measures, and 7 to 8 percent did not complete the items related to the use of alcohol. The high response rate was probably owing to the anonymous nature of the survey and to the fact that participants were given time by their units to complete the 45-minute survey. Kottonmouth Kings Hidden Stash 5 Rarest. The study was conducted under a protocol approved by the institutional review board of the Walter Reed Army Institute of Research.

To assess whether or not our sample was representative, we compared the demographic characteristics of respondents with those of all active-duty Army and Marine personnel deployed to Operation Iraqi Freedom and Operation Enduring Freedom, using the Defense Medical Surveillance System. Survey and Mental Health Outcomes The study outcomes were focused on current symptoms (i.e., those occurring in the past month) of a major depressive disorder, a generalized anxiety disorder, and PTSD. We used two case definitions for each disorder, a broad screening definition that followed current psychiatric diagnostic criteria but did not include criteria for functional impairment or for severity, and a strict (conservative) screening definition that required a self-report of substantial functional impairment or a large number of symptoms. Major depression and generalized anxiety were measured with the use of the patient health questionnaire developed by Spitzer et al. For the strict definition to be met, there also had to be evidence of impairment in work, at home, or in interpersonal functioning that was categorized as at the “very difficult” level as measured by the patient health questionnaire.

The generalized anxiety measure was modified slightly to avoid redundancy; items that pertained to concentration, fatigue, and sleep disturbance were drawn from the depression measure. The presence or absence of PTSD was evaluated with the use of the 17-item National Center for PTSD Checklist of the Department of Veterans Affairs.

Symptoms were related to any stressful experience (in the wording of the “specific stressor” version of the checklist), so that the outcome would be independent of predictors (i.e., before or after deployment). Results were scored as positive if subjects reported at least one intrusion symptom, three avoidance symptoms, and two hyperarousal symptoms that were categorized as at the moderate level, according to the PTSD checklist. For the strict definition to be met, the total score also had to be at least 50 on a scale of 17 to 85 (with a higher number indicating a greater number of symptoms or greater severity), which is a well-established cutoff. Misuse of alcohol was measured with the use of a two-question screening instrument. In addition to these measures, on the survey participants were asked whether they were currently experiencing stress, emotional problems, problems related to the use of alcohol, or family problems and, if so, whether the level of these problems was mild, moderate, or severe; the participants were then asked whether they were interested in receiving help for these problems. Subjects were also asked about their use of professional mental health services in the past month or the past year and about perceived barriers to mental health treatment, particularly stigmatization as a result of receiving such treatment. Combat experiences were modified from previous scales.

Results The demographic characteristics of participants from the three Army units were similar. The Marines in the study were somewhat younger than the soldiers in the study and less likely to be married. The demographic characteristics of all the participants in the survey samples were very similar to those of the general, deployed, active-duty infantry population, except that officers were undersampled, which resulted in slightly lower age and rank distributions ( Table 1 Demographic Characteristics of Study Groups of Soldiers and Marines as Compared with Reference Groups.

Data for the reference populations were obtained from the Defense Medical Surveillance System with the use of available rosters of Army and Marine personnel deployed to Iraq or Afghanistan in 2003 ( ). Among the 1709 soldiers and Marines who had returned from Iraq the reported rates of combat experiences and frequency of contact with the enemy were much higher than those reported by soldiers who had returned from Afghanistan ( Table 2 Combat Experiences Reported by Members of the U.S. Army and Marine Corps after Deployment to Iraq or Afghanistan. Only 31 percent of soldiers deployed to Afghanistan reported having engaged in a firefight, as compared with 71 to 86 percent of soldiers and Marines who had been deployed to Iraq. Among those who had been in a firefight, the median number of firefights during deployment was 2 (interquartile range, 1 to 3) among those in Afghanistan, as compared with 5 (interquartile range, 2 to 13; P. Discussion We investigated mental health outcomes among soldiers and Marines who had taken part in the ground-combat operations in Iraq and Afghanistan.

Respondents to our survey who had been deployed to Iraq reported a very high level of combat experiences, with more than 90 percent of them reporting being shot at and a high percentage reporting handling dead bodies, knowing someone who was injured or killed, or killing an enemy combatant ( ). Close calls, such as having been saved from being wounded by wearing body armor, were not infrequent. Soldiers who served in Afghanistan reported lower but still substantial rates of such experiences in combat.

The percentage of study subjects whose responses met the screening criteria for major depression, PTSD, or alcohol misuse was significantly higher among soldiers after deployment than before deployment, particularly with regard to PTSD. The linear relationship between the prevalence of PTSD and the number of firefights in which a soldier had been engaged was remarkably similar among soldiers returning from Iraq and Afghanistan, suggesting that differences in the prevalence according to location were largely a function of the greater frequency and intensity of combat in Iraq. The association between injury and the prevalence of PTSD supports the results of previous studies. These findings can be generalized to ground-combat units, which are estimated to represent about a quarter of all Army and Marine personnel participating in Operation Iraqi Freedom and Operation Enduring Freedom in Afghanistan (when members of the Reserve and the National Guard are included) and nearly 40 percent of all active-duty personnel (when Reservists and members of the National Guard are not included). The demographic characteristics of the subjects in our samples closely mirrored the demographic characteristics of this population. The somewhat lower proportion of officers had a minimal effect on the prevalence rates, and potential differences in demographic factors among the four study groups were controlled for in our analysis with the use of logistic regression.

One demonstration of the internal validity of our findings was the observation of similar prevalence rates for combat experiences and mental health outcomes among the subjects in the Army and the Marine Corps who had returned from deployment to Iraq, despite the different demographic characteristics of members of these units and their different levels of availability for recruitment into the study. The cross-sectional design involving different units that was used in our study is not as strong as a longitudinal design. However, the comparability of the Army samples and the similarity in outcomes among subjects in the Army and Marine units surveyed after deployment to Iraq should generate confidence in the cross-sectional approach. Another limitation of our study is the potential selection bias resulting from the enrollment procedures, which were influenced by the practical realities that resulted from working with operational units. Although work schedules affected the availability of soldiers to take part in the survey, the effect is not likely to have biased our results. However, the selection procedures did not permit the enrollment of persons who had been severely wounded or those who may have been removed from the units for other reasons, such as misconduct.

Thus, our estimates of the prevalence of mental disorders are conservative, reflecting the prevalence among working, nondisabled combat personnel. The period immediately before a long combat deployment may not be the best time at which to measure baseline levels of distress. The magnitude of the differences between the responses before and after deployment is particularly striking, given the likelihood that the group responding before deployment was already experiencing levels of stress that were higher than normal.

The survey instruments used to screen for mental disorders in this study have been validated primarily in the settings of primary care and in clinical populations. The results therefore do not represent definitive diagnoses of persons in nonclinical populations such as our military samples. However, requiring evidence of functional impairment or a high number of symptoms, as we did, according to the strict case definitions, increases the specificity and positive predictive value of the survey measures. This conservative approach suggested that as many as 9 percent of soldiers may be at risk for mental disorders before combat deployment, and as many as 11 to 17 percent may be at risk for such disorders three to four months after their return from combat deployment. Although there are few published studies of the rates of PTSD among military personnel soon after their return from combat duty, studies of veterans conducted years after their service ended have shown a prevalence of current PTSD of 15 percent among Vietnam veterans and 2 to 10 percent among veterans of the first Gulf War. Rates of PTSD among the general adult population in the United States are 3 to 4 percent, which are not dissimilar to the baseline rate of 5 percent observed in the sample of soldiers responding to the survey before deployment. Research has shown that the majority of persons in whom PTSD develops meet the criteria for the diagnosis of this disorder within the first three months after the traumatic event.

In our study, administering the surveys three to four months after the subjects had returned from deployment and at least six months after the heaviest combat operations was probably optimal for investigating the long-term risk of mental health problems associated with combat. We are continuing to examine this risk in repeated cross-sectional and longitudinal assessments involving the same units. Our findings indicate that a small percentage of soldiers and Marines whose responses met the screening criteria for a mental disorder reported that they had received help from any mental health professional, a finding that parallels the results of civilian studies. In the military, there are unique factors that contribute to resistance to seeking such help, particularly concern about how a soldier will be perceived by peers and by the leadership. Concern about stigma was disproportionately greatest among those most in need of help from mental health services. Soldiers and Marines whose responses were scored as positive for a mental disorder were twice as likely as those whose responses were scored as negative to show concern about being stigmatized and about other barriers to mental health care.

This finding has immediate public health implications. Efforts to address the problem of stigma and other barriers to seeking mental health care in the military should take into consideration outreach, education, and changes in the models of health care delivery, such as increases in the allocation of mental health services in primary care clinics and in the provision of confidential counseling by means of employee-assistance programs. Screening for major depression is becoming routine in military primary care settings, but our study suggests that it should be expanded to include screening for PTSD. Many of these considerations are being addressed in new military programs.

Reducing the perception of stigma and the barriers to care among military personnel is a priority for research and a priority for the policymakers, clinicians, and leaders who are involved in providing care to those who have served in the armed forces. Supported by the Military Operational Medicine Research Program, U.S. Army Medical Research and Materiel Command, Ft.

The views expressed in this article are those of the authors and do not reflect the official policy or position of the Department of the Army, the Department of Defense, the U.S. Government, or any of the institutions with which the authors are affiliated. References • 1 The Centers for Disease Control Vietnam Experience Study Group. Health status of Vietnam veterans. Psychosocial characteristics.

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Contents • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • Composition history [ ] Though Berg began work on the opera in 1914, he was delayed by the start of World War I and it was not until he was on leave from his regiment in 1917 and 1918 that he was able to devote time to finishing it. Berg's experience of the war had a pronounced impact on the compositional direction of Wozzeck. In a letter to his wife written in June 1918, he wrote, 'There is a little bit of me in his character, since I have been spending these war years just as dependent on people I hate, have been in chains, sick, captive, resigned, in fact, humiliated.' His correspondence and notebooks dating from the war years reveal a painful obsession with completing Wozzeck. Compositional sketches and notes for both Wozzeck and the Marsch of that Berg made during the war are strewn with disjointed fragments of military ordinances and terminology. In a draft page of the act 1, scene 2 libretto, Berg included notations in the dialogue that refer to These military signals were later inserted into the score in a modified slightly atonal form, but still likely recognizable to Austrian audiences of the period.

The scene of snoring soldiers in the barracks during act 2, scene 5 was influenced by Berg's similar such experience: '. This breathing, gasping, and groaning is the most peculiar chorus I've ever heard. It is like some primeval music that wells up from the abysses of the soul.' In 1916, however, he devoted himself to attaining the rank of Korporal (), which he did later that year. During this period, as Berg wrote to his wife, 'For months I haven't done any work on Wozzeck.

Everything suffocated. Finishing act 1 by the summer of 1919, act 2 in August 1921, and the final act during the following two months (with orchestration finalized over the following six months), Berg completed Wozzeck in April 1922. For the climactic section, Berg used one of his old student pieces in. Performance history [ ], 'who programmed (the opera) on his own initiative', conducted the world premiere at the on 14 December 1925. Walsh claims that it was 'a with disturbances during the performance and a mixed press afterwards, but it led to a stream of productions in Germany and Austria, before the Nazis consigned it to the dustbin of ' after 1933'. Initially, Wozzeck established a solid place for itself in the mainstream operatic tradition and quickly became so well-established in the repertoire of the major European opera houses that Berg found himself able to live a comfortable life off the royalties.

He spent a good deal of his time through the 1920s and 30s travelling to attend performances and to give talks about the opera. The American premiere of the opera was given by the on 19 March 1931 at the with conducting. 's former pupil, the conductor and BBC programme planner, produced a broadcast of fragments of the work in a studio concert on 13 May 1932, with the under Sir. On 14 March 1934 in the, conducted a complete concert performance of Wozzeck, again produced by Edward Clark.

The opera was given its first British staged performance at the, Covent Garden, on 22 January 1952. A typical performance of the work takes slightly over an hour and a half. Musical style and structure [ ].

This section needs additional citations for. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (July 2016) () Wozzeck is generally regarded as the first opera produced in the 20th-century style and is also one of the most famous examples of employing (music that avoids establishing a ) and. Berg was following in the footsteps of his teacher, Arnold Schoenberg, by using free atonality to express emotions and even the thought processes of the characters on the stage. The expression of madness and alienation was amplified with atonal music. Though the music is atonal in the sense that it does not follow the techniques of the tonality system dominant in the West during the,, and periods, the piece is written with other methods for controlling to direct the. The B–F, for example, represents Wozzeck and Marie, permanently in a struggle with one another.

The combination of B ♭ and D ♭ (a ) represents the link between Marie and the child. In this way, the opera continually returns to certain pitches to mark out key moments in the plot. This is not the same as a, but over time the repetition of these pitches establishes continuity and structure. Leitmotifs [ ] Berg uses a variety of musical techniques to create unity and coherence in the opera. The first is the use of.

As with most composers who have used this method, each leitmotif is used in a much more subtle manner than being directly attached to a character or object. Even so, motifs for the Captain, the Doctor and the Drum Major are very prominent.

Wozzeck is clearly associated with two motifs, one often heard as he rushes on or off stage, the other more languidly expressing his misery and helplessness in the face of the pressures he experiences. Marie is accompanied by motifs that express her sensuality, as when she accepts a pair of earrings from the Drum Major (an act that indicates that her submission to the 'rape' at the end of act 1 was not so reluctant).

A motif that is not explicitly linked with a physical object would be the pair of chords that are used to close each of the three acts, used in an oscillating repetition until they almost blur into one another. The most significant motif is first heard sung by Wozzeck himself (in the first scene with the Captain), to the words ' Wir arme Leut' (poor folk like us). Tracing out a minor chord with added, it is frequently heard as the signal of the inability of the opera's characters to transcend their situation. Beyond this, Berg also reuses motifs from set pieces heard earlier in the opera to give us an insight into the character's thoughts. The reappearance of military band music, as in the last scene of act 1, for example, informs the audience that Marie is musing on the Drum Major's physical desirability. An almost imperceptible leitmotif is the single pitch B, symbolizing the murder. It is first heard pp at the very end of act 2, after Wozzeck's humiliation, after his words ' Einer nach dem andern.'

(one at a time), and grows more and more insistent during the murder scene, with Marie's last cry for help a two- jump from to B3, until after the murder, when the whole orchestra explodes through a prolonged crescendo on this single pitch, first in on B3, then spread across the whole range of the orchestra in octaves. Classic forms [ ] Berg decided against the use of the classic operatic forms such as or for this opera. Instead, each scene is given its own inner coherence by the use of forms more normally associated with abstract instrumental music.

The second scene of act 2 (during which the Doctor and Captain taunt Wozzeck about Marie's infidelity), for instance, consists of a and triple. The fourth scene of act 1, focusing on Wozzeck and the Doctor, is a. The various scenes of the third act move beyond these structures and adopt novel strategies. Each scene is a set of variations, but where the term 'variation' normally indicates that there is a melody undergoing variation, Berg identifies different musical elements for 'variation'. Thus, scene two is a variation on a single note, B ♮, which is heard continuously in the scene, and the only note heard in the powerful orchestral crescendos at the end of act 2, scene 2. Scene 3 is a variation on a rhythmic pattern, with every major thematic element constructed around this pattern. Scene 4 is a variation on a chord, used exclusively for the whole scene.

The following orchestral interlude is a freely composed passage that is firmly grounded in the key of D minor. Finally, the last scene is a moto perpetuum, a variation on a single rhythm (the ). The table below summarizes the dramatic action and forms as prepared. • ^ Walsh, pp.

61–63 • ^ Hall, Patricia (2011-06-09).. Oxford University Press. Retrieved 2015-05-09.

• ^ Watkins, Glenn (2002).. University of California Press. Retrieved 2015-05-09. • Rose, Michael (2013-03-18)..

Norton & Company. Retrieved 2015-05-09. 530 • • • • Pople 1997, p. Retrieved 9 December 2010. Retrieved 12 November 2013.

36 Cited Sources • (2008). (1st Picador ed.). New York: Picador.. • Pople, Anthony. The Cambridge Companion to Berg..

Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.. • Simms, Bryan R. (1996), Alban Berg: A Guide to Research, Routledge.

• Walsh, Stephen (2001), 'Alban Berg' in, ed. The New Penguin Opera Guide, New York: Penguin Putnam, Inc. Other sources • (1991), Alban Berg: Master of the Smallest Link. Juliane Brand and Christopher Hailey. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. • Hall, Patricia (2011), 'Berg's Wozzeck'.

Studies in Musical Genesis, Structure, and Interpretation. New York: Oxford University Press. www.oup.com/us/bergswozzeck; Username: Music2 Password: Book4416 (accessed 29 October 2012) • Jarman, Douglas (1979), The Music of Alban Berg. London and Boston: Faber & Faber; Berkeley: University of California Press. • Jarman, Douglas (1989), 'Alban Berg, Wozzeck'. Cambridge Opera Handbooks. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

(cloth) (pbk) • Perle, George (1980), The Operas of Alban Berg, Vol 1: ' Wozzeck'. Berkeley: University of California Press. • Schmalfeldt, Janet (1983), 'Berg's Wozzeck', Harmonic Language and Dramatic Design. New Haven: Yale University Press External links [ ] • Media related to at Wikimedia Commons • on.